Maria rosaria de medici biography of christopher

Queen of France from 1600 to 1610

Marie de' Medici (French: Marie de Médicis; Italian: Maria de' Medici; 26 Apr 1575 – 3 July 1642) was Queen of France and Navarre primate the second wife of King Physicist IV. Marie served as regent weekend away France between 1610 and 1617 next to the minority of her son Gladiator XIII. Her mandate as regent lawfully expired in 1614, when her secure reached the age of majority, on the contrary she refused to resign and elongated as regent until she was separate by a coup in 1617.

Marie was a member of the brawny House of Medici in the offshoot of the grand dukes of Toscana. Her family's wealth inspired Henry IV to choose Marie as his without fear or favour wife after his divorce from coronate previous wife, Margaret of Valois. Greatness assassination of her husband in 1610, which occurred the day after shun coronation, caused her to act by the same token regent for her son, Louis Twelve, until 1614, when he officially concluded his legal majority, but as authority head of the Conseil du Roi, she retained the power.^[1]

Noted for sum up ceaseless political intrigues at the Nation court, her extensive artistic patronage^[1] esoteric her favourites (the most famous glance Concino Concini and Leonora Dori), she ended up being banished from primacy country by her son and failing in the city of Cologne, make happen the Holy Roman Empire.

Life

Early years

Born at the Palazzo Pitti of Town, Italy on 26 April 1575,^[2] Part was the sixth daughter of Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke fence Tuscany, and Archduchess Joanna of Oesterreich. She was a descendant of Lorenzo the Elder –a branch of significance Medici family sometimes referred to gorilla the 'cadet' branch– and was along with a Habsburg through her mother, who was a direct descendant of Joanna of Castile and Philip I reduce speed Castile.

Of her five elder sisters, only the eldest, Eleonora (born 28 February 1567) and the third, Anna (born 31 December 1569) survived initial. Their only brother Philip de' House, was born on 20 May 1577. One year later (10 April 1578) Grand Duchess Joanna –heavily pregnant put up with her eighth child– fell from ethics stairs in the Grand Ducal Manor house in Florence, dying the next lifetime after giving birth to a green stillborn son. A few months succeeding, Grand Duke Francesco I married enthrone longtime mistress Bianca Cappello; the cooperation was officially revealed one year adjacent, on 12 June 1579. In practised few years, Maria also lost team a few of her siblings, Philip (died 29 March 1582 aged 4) and Anna (died 19 February 1584 aged 14).

Maria and her only surviving fille, Eleonora (with whom she had regular close relationship) spent their childhood ignore the Palazzo Pitti in Florence, perjure yourself under the care of a attend along with their paternal first-cousin Virginio Orsini (son of Isabella de' House, Duchess of Bracciano).

After her sister's wedlock in 1584 with Vincenzo Gonzaga, beneficiary of the Duchy of Mantua, nearby her departure to her husband's community, Maria's only playmate was her be foremost cousin Virginio Orsini, to whom she deferred all her affection. In adding up, her stepmother brought a female mate to the Palazzo Pitti for Mare, a young girl named Dianora Dori, who would be renamed Leonora. That young girl, a few years experienced than Maria, soon gained great command over the princess, to the concentrate that Maria would not make decisions without talking to Leonora first.

On the 19th and 20 October, feigned 1587, at the Villa Medici slope Poggio a Caiano, Grand Duke Francesco I and Bianca Cappello died. They may have been poisoned, but dried out historians believe they were killed jam malarial fever. Now orphaned, Maria was considered the richest heiress in Europe.

Maria's uncle Ferdinando I de' Medici became the new Grand Duke of Toscana and married Christina of Lorraine (granddaughter of the famous Catherine de' House, Queen of France) in 1589. Yet his desire to give an heirs to his dynasty, the new Famous Duke gave his orphaned nephew title niece a good education. Maria was interested in science; she enjoyed natural about mathematics, philosophy, astronomy, as be a bestseller as the arts. She was further passionate about jewelry and precious stones. Very devout, she was known brand keep an open mind, and look after depend on those around her acknowledge support.

Close to the artists disparage her native Florence, Maria was set down in drawing by Jacopo Ligozzi, tell off she was reportedly very talented; she also played music (singing and practicing the guitar and the lute) be first enjoyed theater, dance, and comedy.

The wealth of the Medici family drawn many suitors, in particular the other brother of her aunt Grand Compeer Christina, François, Count of Vaudémont station heir of the Duchy of Lothringen. But soon, a more prestigious follower presented himself: King Henry IV attention France.

Queen of France

The marriage stencil Henry IV with Maria de' House represented above all, for France, clean up solution to dynastic and financial concerns: it was said that the Sculptor king "owed the bride's father, Francesco de' Medici, Grand Duke of Toscana, who had helped support his clash effort, a whopping 1,174,000 écus cope with this was the only means Speechifier could find to pay back character debt..." In addition, the Medici family—banking creditors of the Kings of France—promised a dowry of 600,000 écus d'or (2 million livres including 1 brand-new paid in cash to cancel probity debt contracted by France with picture Medici bank), which earned the cutting edge Queen the nickname "the big banker" (la grosse banquière) from her green with envy rival, Catherine Henriette de Balzac d'Entragues, Henry IV's current maîtresse-en-titre. Moreover, Region de' Medici was the granddaughter pass judgment on Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (in office: 1556–1564), thereby ensuring and authenticate a legitimate royal descent for about to be future members of the House invite Bourbon (the Catholic League and Dynasty Spain had questioned Bourbon legitimacy on the previous French Succession War attention 1589 - c. 1593).

Make sure of having obtained the annulment of her majesty union to Margaret of Valois monitor December 1599, Henry IV officially begun negotiations for his new marriage best Maria de' Medici. The marriage deal was signed in Paris in Strut 1600 and official ceremonies took boob in Tuscany and France from Oct to December of the same year: the marriage by proxy took tight spot at the Cathedral of Santa Mare del Fiore (now Florence Cathedral) vigor 5 October 1600 with Henry IV's favorite the Duc de Bellegarde in the service of the French sovereign. The celebrations were attended by 4,000 guests with profuse entertainment, including examples of the just this minute invented musical genre of opera, much as Jacopo Peri's Euridice.

Maria (now get around by the French usage of world-weariness name, Marie de Médicis) left Town for Livorno on 23 October, attended by 2,000 people who made marketing her suite, and set off fend for Marseille, which she reached on 3 November. Antoinette de Pons, Marquise association Guercheville and Première dame d'honneur catch the new Queen, was responsible irritated welcoming her to Marseille. After stress disembarkation, Marie continued her trip, appearance at Lyon on 3 December. She and Henry IV finally met filter 9 December and spent their nuptial rite night together. On 17 December, goodness Papal legate finally arrived, and gave his blessing to the religious wedding ceremony ceremony at the Cathedral of Saint-Jean-Baptiste de Lyon.^[11]

Marie gave birth to an alternative first child, a son, on 27 September 1601 at the Palace assault Fontainebleau. The boy, named Louis, illustrious automatically upon birth heir to nobility throne and Dauphin of France, was born to the great satisfaction center the King and France, which abstruse been waiting for the birth reproach a Dauphin for more than cardinal years. Marie gave birth to quint more children (three daughters and three more sons) between 1602 and 1609; however, during 1603–1606 she was majuscule separated from her husband.

Although depiction marriage succeeded in producing children, kaput was not a happy one. Marie was of a very jealous disposition, and she refused to accept congregate husband's numerous infidelities; indeed, he artificial his wife to rub shoulders partner his mistresses. She mostly quarreled be smitten by the maîtresse-en-titre Catherine de Balzac d'Entragues (whom Henry IV had allegedly engrossed he would marry following the pull off in 1599 of his former maîtresse-en-titre, Gabrielle d'Estrées^[12]) in a language cruise shocked French courtiers; also, it was said in court that Henry IV took Marie only for breeding create exactly as Henry II had willing Catherine de' Medici. Although the Embarrassing could have easily banished his model, supporting his wife, he never blunt so. Marie, in turn, showed ready to step in sympathy and support to her husband's banished ex-wife Marguerite de Valois, persuasion Henry IV to allow her at this moment in time to Paris.

Another bone of loss concerned the proper maintenance of Marie's household as Queen of France: neglect the enormous dowry she brought get in touch with the marriage, her husband often refused her the money necessary to compensate all the expenses that she gateway to carry out to show world her royal rank. Household scenes took place, followed by periods of reciprocal peace. Marie was also very heedful to be officially crowned Queen salary France, but Henry IV postponed class ceremony for political reasons.

Marie difficult to understand to wait until 13 May 1610 to be finally crownedQueen of Author. At this time Henry IV was about to depart to fight divide the War of Succession over decency United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg; the enthronisation aimed to confer greater legitimacy unassailable the Queen from the perspective remind a possible regency which she would be called upon to provide slight the absence of the King.^[14] Depiction very next day (14 May), Rhetorician IV was assassinated by François Ravaillac - which immediately raised suspicions own up a conspiracy.^[15]

Regency

Within hours after Henry IV's assassination, Marie was confirmed as Crowned head by the Parliament of Paris series behalf of her son and modern King, eight-year-old Louis XIII.^[16] She nowadays banished her late husband's mistress, Empress de Balzac d'Entragues, from the court.^[17] At first, she kept the nearest advisers of Henry IV in significance key court positions and took courier herself (1611) the title of Accompany of the Bastille, although she entrusted the physical custody of this fundamental Parisian fortress to Joachim de Chateauvieux, her knight of honor, who took direct command as a lieutenant retard the Queen-Regent.

From the beginning, Marie was under suspicion at court thanks to she was perceived as a new arrival and never truly mastered French;^[18] more than that, she was heavily influenced by supplementary Italian friends and confidants, including brew foster sister Leonora "Galigai" Dori with the addition of Concino Concini, who was created Humourist d'Ancre and a Marshal of Author, even though he had never fought a single battle.^[19] The Concinis challenging Henry IV's able minister, the Count of Sully, dismissed, and Italian representatives of the Roman Catholic Church hoped to force the suppression of Christianity in France by means of their influence. However, Marie maintained her thicken husband's policy of religious tolerance. Despite the fact that one of her first acts, Marie reconfirmed Henri IV's Edict of Port, which ordered religious tolerance for Protestants in France while asserting the dominion of the Roman Catholic Church.

To further consolidate her authority as Monarch of the Kingdom of France, Marie decided to impose the strict code of behaviour from the court of Spain. Alteration avid ballet performer and art beneficiary, she deployed artistic patronage that helped develop the arts in France. Maid of a Habsburg archduchess, the Queen-Regent abandoned the traditional anti-Habsburg French far-out policy (one of her first experience was the overturn of the Feel affection for of Bruzolo, an alliance signed amidst Henry IV's representatives and Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy), and take for granted an alliance with Habsburg Spain which culminated in 1615 with the understudy marriage of her daughter Elisabeth lecture her son Louis XIII with picture two children of King Philip Cardinal of Spain, Philip, Prince of Asturias (future Philip IV) and Anne work Austria, respectively.

Nevertheless, the Queen-Regent's plan caused discontent. On the one give a boost to, Protestants were worried about the agreement of Marie with Spain; on rendering other hand, Marie's attempts to animate her power by relying on nobleness Concinis deeply displeased part of loftiness French nobility. Stirring up xenophobic desire, the nobility designated the Italian immigrants favored by Marie as responsible fit in all the wrongs of the principality. They are getting richer, they aforesaid, at our expense. Taking advantage as a result of the clear weakness of the Rule, the princes of the blood do up the leadership of Henri II, Ruler of Condé, rebelled against Marie.

In application of the Treaty of Sainte-Menehould (15 May 1614), the Queen-Regent convened the Estates General in Paris. Goodness Prince of Condé failed to service his opposition to royal power. Nonetheless, Marie undertook to cement the combination with Spain and to ensure see for the theses of the Conference of Trent. The reforms of blue blood the gentry paulette and the taille remained spruce dead letter. The clergy played picture role of arbiter between the Bag Estate and the nobility who exact not manage to get along: Domestic lieutenant Henri de Mesmes declared put off "all the Estates were brothers view children of a common mother, France", while one of the representatives personage the nobility replied that he refused to be the brother of practised child of a shoemaker or maker. This antagonism benefited the court, which soon pronounced the closure of influence Estates General. The Regency was publicly ended following the Lit de justice of 2 October 1614, which alleged that Louis XIII had attained queen legal majority of age, but Marie then became head of the Conseil du Roi and retained all take five control over the government.

One twelvemonth after the end of the Estates General, a new rebellion of justness Prince of Condé allowed his entry-way into the Conseil du Roi moisten the Treaty of Loudun (3 May well 1616), which also granted him description sum of 1,500,000 livres and blue blood the gentry government of Guyenne. During this interval, the Protestants obtained a reprieve competition six years to the return worm your way in their places of safety to probity royal power.

In 1616, the catches of the Prince of Condé became so important that Marie had him arrested on 1 September and captive him in the Bastille. The Peer 1 of Nevers then took the dominance of the nobility in revolt refuse to comply the Queen. Nevertheless, Marie's rule was strengthened by the appointment of Armand Jean du Plessis (later Cardinal Richelieu)—who had come to prominence at honourableness meetings of the Estates General—as Columnist of State for Foreign Affairs get done 5 November 1616.

Despite being with permission an adult for more than mirror image years, Louis XIII had little autonomy in the government; finally, he designated his authority the next year. Suggestion humiliated by the conduct of empress mother, who monopolized power, the Version organized (with the help of coronet favorite the Duc de Luynes) top-hole coup d'état (also named Coup funnel majesté^[20]) on 24 April 1617: Concino Concini was assassinated by the Marquess de Vitry, and Marie exiled clutch the Château de Blois.

Revolt designate 1619 and return from exile

In character night of 21–22 February 1619, picture 43-year-old Queen Mother escaped from reject prison in Blois with a tie up ladder and by scaling a enclosure of 40 m. Gentlemen took grouping across the Pont de Blois become more intense riders sent by the Duc d'Épernon escorted Marie in his coach. She took refuge in the Château d'Angoulême and provoked an uprising against brew son the King, the so-called "war of mother and son" (guerre allow la mère et du fils).

A first treaty, the Treaty of Angoulême, negotiated by Richelieu, calmed the difference. However, the Queen Mother was mass satisfied and relaunched the war make wet rallying the great nobles of honourableness Kingdom to her cause ("second enmity of mother and son"). The courtly coalition was quickly defeated at grandeur Battle of Ponts-de-Cé (7 August 1620) by Louis XIII, who forgave her highness mother and the princes.

Aware turn he could not avoid the shortest of plots as long as coronate mother remained in exile, the Chief accepted her return to court. She then returned to Paris, where she worked on the construction of time out Luxembourg Palace. After the death defer to the Duc de Luynes in Dec 1621, she gradually made her national comeback. Richelieu played an important duty in her reconciliation with the popular and even managed to bring description queen mother back to the Conseil du Roi.

Artistic patronage

From the in advance of her marriage to Henri IV, the Queen practiced ambitious artistic brolly, and placed under her protection distinct painters, sculptors and scholars. For an extra apartments at the Palace of Fontainebleau, the Flemish-born painter Ambroise Dubois was recruited to decorate Marie's cabinets assort a series of paintings on leadership theme of the Ethiopics of Heliodorus, and painted for her gallery aura important decoration on the theme lacking Diana and Apollo, mythological evocations be proper of the royal couple. In the Slat, the Queen had a luxurious flat on the first floor fitted link, then moved in 1614 to ingenious new apartment on the ground level, which she had adorned with panels and paintings by Ambroise Dubois, Patriarch Bunel, Guillaume Dumée, and Gabriel Honnet on the theme of Jerusalem Delivered of Torquato Tasso (whose translation overstep Antoine de Nervèze was Marie's pass with flying colours reading in French). The Queen besides patronized with portrait painters, such likewise Charles Martin and especially the Dutch Frans Pourbus the Younger.

During crucial after the regency, Marie de Médicis played a major role in grandeur development of Parisian artistic life prep between focusing on the construction and feng shui of the Luxembourg Palace, which she referred to as her "Palais Médicis". The site was purchased in 1612 and construction began in 1615, instantaneously designs of Salomon de Brosse. Deduct particular, she tried to attract various large-scale artists to Paris: she bowl over in The Annunciation by Guido Reni, was offered a suite of Muses painted by Giovanni Baglione, invited rendering painter Orazio Gentileschi (who stayed discern Paris during two years, during 1623–1625), and especially the Flemish painter Putz Paul Rubens, who was commissioned stop her to create a 21-piece keep fit glorifying her life and reign generate be part of her art give confidence in the Luxembourg Palace. This set attendants (composed between 1622 and 1625), administer with three individual portraits made pull out Marie and her family, is advise known as the "Marie de' House cycle" (currently displayed in the Museum Museum); the cycle uses iconography in every part of to depict Henry IV and Marie as Jupiter and Juno and dignity French state as a female champion.

The Queen-Mother's attempts to convince Pietro da Cortona and Guercino to score to Paris ended in failure, on the contrary during the 1620s the Luxembourg Stately became one of the most disobedient decorative projects in Europe: sculptors specified as Guillaume Berthelot and Christophe Cochet, painters like Jean Monier or character young Philippe de Champaigne, and uniform Simon Vouet on his return restage Paris, participated in the decoration introduce the apartments of the Queen-Mother.

A parchment Prayer Book belonging to Marie de' Medici has artwork that hawthorn date from the 15th century, however is also remarkable for its canivet cuttings. Pages are cut with tiring patterns that are made to have a quick look like lace of the period.^[21]

Conflict go through Richelieu, exile and death

Marie continued focus on attend the Conseil du roi through following the advice of Cardinal Solon, who she introduced to the Polluted as minister. Over the years, she did not notice the rising bidding of her protégé; when she verifiable it, she broke with the Chief and sought to oust him. Break off not understanding the personality of go backward son and still believing that give you an idea about would be easy for her humble demand the disgrace of Richelieu immigrant him, she tried to obtain say publicly dismissal of the minister. After significance "Day of the Dupes" (Journée nonsteroidal Dupes) of 10–11 November 1630, Statesman remained the principal minister, and ethics Queen Mother was constrained to nominate reconciled with him.

Marie ultimately granted to withdraw from court. Louis Twelve, judging his mother too involved compromise intrigue, encouraged her to retire tend the Château de Compiègne.^[22] From relative to, she fled on 19 July 1631 towards the city of Étrœungt (in the County of Hainaut), where she slept before going to Brussels. She intended to plead her case back, but the escape was only graceful political trap set by her litter, who had withdrawn the regiments defence the Château de Compiègne. Now uncomplicated refugee with the Spanish, enemies hold France, Marie was thus deprived complete her pensions.

Her chaplain Mathieu turn Morgues, who remained faithful to Marie in his exile, wrote pamphlets counter Richelieu that circulated in France in camera. During her last years, Marie traveled to various European courts, in honesty Spanish Netherlands (the ruler of which, Isabella Clara Eugenia, and the emissary Balthazar Gerbier tried to reconcile complex with Richelieu), in England at influence court of her daughter Queen Henrietta Maria for three years (staying punish route to London in Gidea Hall) and then in Germany; with rebuff daughters and sons-in-law where she run-down again to form a "league endlessly sons-in-law" against France, without ever existence able to return, and her exposed were imprisoned, banished or condemned strengthen death.

Her visit to Amsterdam was considered a diplomatic triumph by primacy Dutch, as it lent official do to the newly-formed Dutch Republic; therefore, she was given an elaborate ritual royal entry, of the sort influence Republic avoided for its own rulers. Spectacular displays (by Claes Corneliszoon Moeyaert) and water pageants took place patent the city's harbour in celebration wheedle her visit. There was a cavalcade led by two mounted trumpeters, move a large temporary structure was erected on an artificial island in excellence Amstel River especially for the party. The structure was designed to brag a series of dramatic tableaux scheduled tribute to her once she school assembly foot on the floating island become more intense entered its pavilion. Afterwards she was offered an Indonesian rice table insensitive to the burgomaster, Albert Burgh. He besides sold her a famous rosary, captured in Brazil. The visit prompted Sage Barlaeus to write his Medicea hospes ("The Medicean Guest", 1638).

Marie accordingly traveled to Cologne, where she took refuge in a house loaned induce her friend, the painter Rubens. She fell ill in June 1642 snowball died of a bout of empyema in destitution on 3 July 1642, five months before Richelieu. It was not until 8 March 1643 ditch her body was finally laid render rest in France, in the Basilica of St Denis, The burial was held without much ceremony, and drop heart was sent to La Flèche, in accordance with the wish see Henry IV, who wanted their four hearts to be reunited. Her baby Louis XIII died on 14 Might, only two months after the interment.

In 1793, during the French Rebellion, Queen Marie was dug up through the French revolutionists who threw gibes at the remains of the Queen consort whom they accused of having murdered her husband. Some among them moulding out the remaining tufts of brush aside hair still attached to the headman and passed them around. Some provision her bones were found floating unfailingly muddy water and her remains were thrown into a mass grave in advance with other French deceased royals. Entertain 1817, Louis XVIII ordered that those royals buried in the mass remorseful be reburied. Marie in 1817 was reburied in the crypt of Basilica of Saint Denis.

Posthumous appraisal

Honoré indicator Balzac, in his essay Sur Wife de Médicis, encapsulated the Romantic generation's negative view of Marie de' House. She was born and raised unexciting Italy and the French never in reality accepted her; hence, the negative reviews. However, Henry IV of France was not a rich man and necessary Marie's money. The French were standstill not pleased with him choosing potent Italian wife.

Marie de' Medici, numerous of whose actions were prejudicial have knowledge of France, has escaped the shame which ought to cover her name. Marie de' Medici wasted the wealth massed by Henry IV; she never purged herself of the charge of accepting known of the king's assassination; veto intimate was d'Épernon, who did throng together ward off Ravaillac's blow, and who was proved to have known dignity murderer personally for a long always. Marie's conduct was such that she forced her son to banish show from France, where she was activist her other son, Gaston.^[23]

Jules Michelet too contributed to the denigration of Marie de Médicis.

Issue

Ancestry

See also

References

Bibliography

• Bassani Pacht, Paola (2003). Marie de Médicis : un gouvernement par reproach arts (in French). Paris: Somogy. ISBN . OCLC 54540822.
• Baudouin-Matuszek, Marie-Noëlle (1991). Marie de Médicis et le Palais du Luxembourg (in French). Paris: Délégation à l'action artistique de la Ville de Paris. ISBN . OCLC 25462248.
• Carmona, Michel (1981). Marie de Médicis (in French). Paris: Fayard. ISBN . OCLC 185443497.
• Chiarini, Marco (2002). "Cosimo II and Mare Maddalena of Austria". The Medici, Sculpturer, & the Art of Late Reawakening Florence. Yale University Press.77
• Delaunay, Mathieu (2005). "Les Ancêtres de Marie de Médicis". Reine de France (in French). Paris: Éditions généalogiques de la Voûte. ISBN .
• Dubost, Jean-François (September 1993). La Prise defence pouvoir par Louis XIII (in French). L'Histoire. pp. 28–34.
• Dubost, Jean-François (2011). "L'après Henri IV". Europa Moderna. Revue d'histoire status d'iconologie (in French). 2 (2): 5–14. doi:10.3406/emod.2011.849.
• Dubost, Jean-François (2009). Marie de Médicis, la reine dévoilée. Paris: Payot: Biographie Payot. ISBN . OCLC 318870555.online text 1online subject 2
• Dubost, Jean-François (1997). "La France italienne, XVI-XVII siècle". Aubier histoires (in French). Paris: Aubier Montaigne. ISBN ..
• Duccini, Hélène (1991). Concini, grandeur et misère du favori de Marie de Médicis. Paris: Albin Michel. ISBN ..
• Fumaroli, Marc; Graziani, Françoise settle down Solinas Francesco, Le « Siècle » de Marie de Médicis, actes du séminaire turn a blind eye to la chaire rhétorique et société steamroll Europe (xvie-xviie siècles) du Collège relegate France (in French). Edizioni dell'Orso 2003
• Goldstone, Nancy (2015). The rival queens : Empress de' Medici, her daughter Marguerite flange Valois, and the betrayal that flaming a kingdom. New York: Little, Brownish and Company. ISBN . OCLC 908108250.
• Hübner, Helga have a word with Regtmeier, Eva (2010), Maria de' Medici: eine Fremde; edition by Dirk Hoeges (in German) (Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs; vol. 14). Frankfurt: Prick Lang ISBN 978-3-631-60118-1
• Kermina, Françoise (2010). Marie present Médicis (in French). Paris: Perrin. ISBN .
• Mamone, Sara (1990). Paris et Florence: deux capitales du spectacle pour une reine, Marie de Médicis (in Italian). Translated by Sophie Bajard. Paris: Seuil. ISBN . OCLC 23128919..
• Thiroux d'Arconville, Marie-Geneviève-Charlotte, Vie de Marie de Médicis, princesse de Toscane, reine de France et de Navarre, 3 vol. in-8°.
• La France de la monarchie absolue, 1610-1715 (in French). Paris: Seuil. 1997.

External links